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The discovery of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas system has revolutionized the field of molecular biology and medicine (reviewed by Kantor et al. ) . CRISPR-mediated genome editing initially involved the generation of a Cas9-induced double-strand DNA Â repaired by either non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) mechanisms, or by homology-directed repair (HDR). The discovery of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISP...
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Historically, reporter genes  have been delivered as DNA plasmids for transcription into mRNA before translation into a reporter protein. In biological systems, ideal reporter proteins generate highly sensitive signals that are easily measurable. Thus, they are often photoluminescent  (e.g., GFP) or chemiluminescent  (e.g., luciferase).
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The current universe of vaccines can be divided into two main categories, conventional vaccines  and nucleic acid vaccines  ( Blakney et al. ). Conventional vaccines are based on a protein adjuvant, and nucleic acid vaccines can be based on DNA or RNA. For this blog, we will focus on nucleic acid vaccines based on RNA structures and, in particular, self-amplifying RNA vaccines ( Figure 1 ).
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