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Historically,  reporter genes  have been delivered as DNA plasmids for transcription into mRNA before translation into a reporter protein. In biological systems, ideal reporter proteins generate highly sensitive signals that are easily measurable. Thus, they are often  photoluminescent  (e.g., GFP) or  chemiluminescent  (e.g., luciferase).

The current universe of vaccines can be divided into two main categories,  conventional vaccines  and  nucleic acid vaccines   ( Blakney et al. ). Conventional vaccines are based on a protein adjuvant, and nucleic acid vaccines can be based on DNA or RNA. For this blog, we will focus on nucleic acid vaccines based on RNA structures and, in particular, self-amplifying RNA vaccines ( Figure 1 ).